Redesigning Slack for Wearables & Infotainment
Redesigning Slack for Wearables & Infotainment
STATUS
STATUS
07:10
07:10
LTE
LTE
# design-team
# design-team
is inviting you to a huddle...
is inviting you to a huddle...
9:15 AM
9:15 AM
Join Huddle
Join Huddle
Be there soon
Be there soon
VIP DMs
VIP DMs
MENTIONS
MENTIONS
REMINDERS
REMINDERS
HUDDLE
HUDDLE
9:55
9:55
Slack
Slack
VIP DMs
VIP DMs
VIP
VIP
Reminders
Reminders
Mentions
Mentions
Redesigning Slack for Wearables & Infotainment
Redesigning Slack for Wearables & Infotainment
Available for work
Bringing Slack to New Contexts: Smartwatches & Infotainment
Role
Role
UI/UX Design
UI/UX Design
Timeline
Timeline
2 months
2 months
Project
Project
Academic
Academic
Tools
Tools
Figma
Figma
What I did
What I did
UI Design, UX Design, MoSCoW Prioritization, Wireframing, Prototyping, Usability Testing
UI Design, UX Design, MoSCoW Prioritization, Wireframing, Prototyping, Usability Testing
Introduction
Introduction
Digital experiences are not limited to traditional screens like mobile phones, tablets and desktops anymore. People now utilize devices such as smartwatches, car infotainment systems, kiosks, AR/VR and home hubs on a daily basis. This creates an opportunity to design existing applications for these devices where they do not yet exist.
Digital experiences are not limited to traditional screens like mobile phones, tablets and desktops anymore. People now utilize devices such as smartwatches, car infotainment systems, kiosks, AR/VR and home hubs on a daily basis. This creates an opportunity to design existing applications for these devices where they do not yet exist.
Project Goal
Project Goal
This project aims to design Slack, a widely used communication tool for smartwatches and infotainment systems where it has not yet been introduced. The goal is to determine the most crucial features that should be provided in each context. Moreover, at least one feature that leverages the unique capabilities of each device’s hardware will be integrated to enhance the user experience.
This project aims to design Slack, a widely used communication tool for smartwatches and infotainment systems where it has not yet been introduced. The goal is to determine the most crucial features that should be provided in each context. Moreover, at least one feature that leverages the unique capabilities of each device’s hardware will be integrated to enhance the user experience.
Proto-Persona (Smartwatch)
Proto-Persona (Smartwatch)
Alex
Profession: Project Manager
Alex relies on his smartwatch to stay connected without distraction during meetings. He uses Slack on mobile and desktop but needs a more efficient way to check updates when his phone isn’t accessible.
Goals and Motivations:
Alex needs a quick way to check important Slack messages without having to access his phone during meetings.
He needs an efficient way to respond to colleagues that doesn’t require typing on a small screen.
He needs to stay updated without getting overwhelmed by every Slack notification, ensuring that only the important messages grab his attention.
Pain Points:
Alex has to constantly check his phone for Slack updates, which is distracting during meetings.
He misses important messages when his phone is not immediately accessible, leading to delayed responses.
Alex
Age: 32
Profession: Project Manager
Location: Philadelphia
Alex is a professional who works on multiple projects and attends meetings daily. He relies on his smartwatch to stay connected without distraction during meetings. He uses Slack on mobile and desktop but needs a more efficient way to check updates when his phone isn’t accessible.
Goals and Motivations:
Alex needs a quick way to check important Slack messages without having to access his phone during meetings.
He needs an efficient way to respond to colleagues that doesn’t require typing on a small screen.
He needs to stay updated without getting overwhelmed by every Slack notification, ensuring that only the important messages grab his attention.
Pain Points:
Alex has to constantly check his phone for Slack updates, which is distracting during meetings.
He misses important messages when his phone is not immediately accessible, leading to delayed responses.
Proto-Persona (Infotainment)
Ryan
Profession: Sales Manager
Ryan spends a lot of time commuting between client meetings and office visits. Staying connected with his team via Slack is important, but checking messages on his phone while driving is not safe.
Goals and Motivations:
Ryan needs a safe way to access important Slack messages while driving without causing distractions.
He needs a way to send hands-free responses to acknowledge messages and provide timely updates to his team.
He needs to filter messages so that only the most important notifications alert him while driving.
Pain Points:
Reading long Slack messages while driving is unsafe.
He needs to reach his destination before checking important messages, causing delays in communication.
Ryan
Age: 36
Profession: Sales Manager
Location: Philadelphia
Ryan spends a lot of time commuting between client meetings and office visits. Staying connected with his team via Slack is important, but checking messages on his phone while driving is not safe. He need a hands-free method for checking critical messages without taking his hands off the steering wheel.
Goals and Motivations:
Ryan needs a safe way to access important Slack messages while driving without causing distractions.
He needs a way to send hands-free responses to acknowledge messages and provide timely updates to his team.
He needs to filter messages so that only the most important notifications alert him while driving.
Pain Points:
Reading long Slack messages while driving is unsafe.
He needs to reach his destination before checking important messages, causing delays in communication.
Why these Platforms
Why these Platforms
The smartwatch and infotainment system were chosen to introduce Slack because they address the communication gaps in different contexts where users may not have immediate access to their phone or desktop.
The smartwatch and infotainment system were chosen to introduce Slack because they address the communication gaps in different contexts where users may not have immediate access to their phone or desktop.
Smartwatch
Smartwatch offers a quick way to stay connected, allowing users to glance at important messages and respond quickly without getting distracted from their workflow. This is helpful for professionals who are in meetings and prefer a subtle way to stay updated.
Smartwatch offers a quick way to stay connected, allowing users to glance at important messages and respond quickly without getting distracted from their workflow. This is helpful for professionals who are in meetings and prefer a subtle way to stay updated.
Infotainment System
Car Infotainment System allows hands-free and voice-controlled communication, ensuring that users stay connected with teammates while driving safely. Professionals who spend a lot of time commuting need a way to access high-priority Slack notifications without being distracted while driving.
Car Infotainment System allows hands-free and voice-controlled communication, ensuring that users stay connected with teammates while driving safely. Professionals who spend a lot of time commuting need a way to access high-priority Slack notifications without being distracted while driving.
MoSCoW
MoSCoW
To create MoSCoW for both devices, existing features of Slack were grouped into a set of color-coded cards. A second set of new features were created for smartwatch, considering the small screen interactions. Another set was created for the infotainment system focusing on hands-free interactions. A last set was reassigned to common features that could exist on both interfaces.
To create MoSCoW for both devices, existing features of Slack were grouped into a set of color-coded cards. A second set of new features were created for smartwatch, considering the small screen interactions. Another set was created for the infotainment system focusing on hands-free interactions. A last set was reassigned to common features that could exist on both interfaces.
Smartwatch
Below is the MoSCoW categorization of features for smartwatch based on user needs, usability considerations and platform limitations.
Below is the MoSCoW categorization of features for smartwatch based on user needs, usability considerations and platform limitations.
Must Have
VIP DMs
Mentions
Reminders
Huddle
Voice Command
Should Have
Slack Status Update
Skip Message
Replay Message
Edit Message
Could Have
Huddle
Scheduled Messages
Threads
Won’t Have
Channel List
Message Formatting
File Previews
Keypad
Must Have
VIP DMs
Mentions
Reminders
Huddle
Voice Command
Should Have
Slack Status Update
Skip Message
Replay Message
Edit Message
Could Have
Huddle
Scheduled Messages
Threads
Won’t Have
Channel List
Message Formatting
File Previews
Keypad
Must Have
VIP DMs
Mentions
Reminders
Huddle
Voice Command
Should Have
Slack Status Update
Skip Message
Replay Message
Edit Message
Could Have
Huddle
Scheduled Messages
Threads
Won’t Have
Channel List
Message Formatting
File Previews
Keypad
Must Have
VIP DMs
Mentions
Reminders
Huddle
Voice Command
Should Have
Slack Status Update
Skip Message
Replay Message
Edit Message
Could Have
Huddle
Scheduled Messages
Threads
Won’t Have
Channel List
Message Formatting
File Previews
Keypad
Must Have
VIP DMs
Mentions
Reminders
Message Previews
Voice to Text Replies
Should Have
Quick Replies
Save for Later
Emoji Responses
Snooze Reminders
Could Have
Huddle
Scheduled Messages
Threads
Won’t Have
Channel List
Message Formatting
File Previews
Keypad
Infotainment System
Below is the MoSCoW categorization of features for infotainment system considering driving safety while ensuring effective in-car communication.
Below is the MoSCoW categorization of features for infotainment system considering driving safety while ensuring effective in-car communication.
Must Have
VIP DMs
Mentions
Reminders
Huddle
Voice Command
Should Have
Slack Status Update
Skip Message
Replay Message
Edit Message
Could Have
Quick Replies
Scheduled Messages
Save for Later
Snooze Reminders
Won’t Have
Channel List
Message Formatting
File Previews
Keypad
Emoji Responses
Threads
Must Have
VIP DMs
Mentions
Reminders
Huddle
Voice Command
Should Have
Slack Status Update
Skip Message
Replay Message
Edit Message
Could Have
Quick Replies
Scheduled Messages
Save for Later
Snooze Reminders
Won’t Have
Channel List
Message Formatting
File Previews
Keypad
Emoji Responses
Threads
Must Have
VIP DMs
Mentions
Reminders
Huddle
Voice Command
Should Have
Slack Status Update
Skip Message
Replay Message
Edit Message
Could Have
Quick Replies
Scheduled Messages
Save for Later
Snooze Reminders
Won’t Have
Channel List
Message Formatting
File Previews
Keypad
Emoji Responses
Threads
Must Have
VIP DMs
Mentions
Reminders
Huddle
Voice Command
Should Have
Slack Status Update
Skip Message
Replay Message
Edit Message
Could Have
Quick Replies
Scheduled Messages
Save for Later
Snooze Reminders
Won’t Have
Channel List
Message Formatting
File Previews
Keypad
Emoji Responses
Threads
Must Have
VIP DMs
Mentions
Reminders
Huddle
Voice Command
Should Have
Slack Status Update
Skip Message
Replay Message
Edit Message
Could Have
Quick Replies
Scheduled Messages
Save for Later
Snooze Reminders
Won’t Have
Channel List
Message Formatting
File Previews
Keypad
Emoji Responses
Threads
Feature Value on New Platforms
Feature Value on New Platforms
Common Features
1
VIP DMs
This feature offers an efficient way to manage high-priority messages, ensuring users stay connected with their colleagues without distractions from less important messages. By adding key contacts to the VIP list on the Slack smartphone app, users can receive prioritized notifications on their smartwatch and infotainment system.
This feature offers an efficient way to manage high-priority messages, ensuring users stay connected with their colleagues without distractions from less important messages. By adding key contacts to the VIP list on the Slack smartphone app, users can receive prioritized notifications on their smartwatch and infotainment system.
Jordan Wells
That sounds like a gr...
9:15 AM
Ethan Reynolds
I was thinking we co...
9:00 AM
George
Thanks again for tak...
8:45 AM
Clear All
VIP DMs
9:55
2
Mentions
Mentions ensure that users do not miss messages that are specifically addressed to them. On smartwatches, mentions offer highlighted messages where users have been tagged, while on car infotainment systems, it enable hands-free listening and replies through voice commands.
Mentions ensure that users do not miss messages that are specifically addressed to them. On smartwatches, mentions offer highlighted messages where users have been tagged, while on car infotainment systems, it enable hands-free listening and replies through voice commands.
Michael Carter
Michael Carter
Hi @vedhabbu lets c...
Hi @vedhabbu lets c...
9:15 AM
9:15 AM
Daniel Brooks
Daniel Brooks
@vedhabbu I review...
@vedhabbu I review...
9:00 AM
9:00 AM
Samantha
Samantha
@vedhabbu Just a q...
@vedhabbu Just a q...
8:45 AM
8:45 AM
Clear All
Clear All
Mentions
Mentions
9:55
9:55
3
Reminders
Reminders on smartwatch and infotainment system ensures that users keep track of critical tasks by sending them timely notifications. It allows them to access important updates like project deadlines and meeting schedules even when users are away from their phone.
Reminders on smartwatch and infotainment system ensures that users keep track of critical tasks by sending them timely notifications. It allows them to access important updates like project deadlines and meeting schedules even when users are away from their phone.
Michael Carter
Michael Carter
Hi @vedhabbu lets c...
Hi @vedhabbu lets c...
9:15 AM
9:15 AM
Daniel Brooks
Daniel Brooks
@vedhabbu I review...
@vedhabbu I review...
9:00 AM
9:00 AM
Samantha
Samantha
@vedhabbu Just a q...
@vedhabbu Just a q...
8:45 AM
8:45 AM
Clear All
Clear All
Mentions
Mentions
9:55
9:55
Smartwatch
1
Quick Reply Suggestions
This feature offers a quick way to reply to messages without typing, reducing interaction time and making communication faster. It is particularly valuable in scenarios where typing is not feasible, such as during meetings.
This feature offers a quick way to reply to messages without typing, reducing interaction time and making communication faster. It is particularly valuable in scenarios where typing is not feasible, such as during meetings.
Let’s do it!
Let’s do it!
On it!
On it!
Agreed!
Agreed!
Suggestions
Suggestions
Michael C...
Michael C...
9:55
9:55
2
Save for Later
The Save for Later feature allows users to bookmark important messages that they don’t have time to respond to immediately. Instead of responding immediately or forgetting the message, users can save it and reply to it later from their desktop or phone.
The Save for Later feature allows users to bookmark important messages that they don’t have time to respond to immediately. Instead of responding immediately or forgetting the message, users can save it and reply to it later from their desktop or phone.
Hi @vedhabbu lets confirm the timeline so we stay on track.
Hi @vedhabbu lets confirm the timeline so we stay on track.
9:15 AM
9:15 AM
Hi @vedhabbu lets confirm the timeline so we stay on track.
Hi @vedhabbu lets confirm the timeline so we stay on track.
9:15 AM
9:15 AM
Reply
Reply
Michael C...
Michael C...
9:55
9:55
3
Snooze
Snooze allows users to temporarily quiet the reminder. Instead of dismissing the reminder completely, they can snooze it for a set duration so that it reappears at a convenient time. This feature is useful during focused work sessions, where distractions need to be minimized.
Snooze allows users to temporarily quiet the reminder. Instead of dismissing the reminder completely, they can snooze it for a set duration so that it reappears at a convenient time. This feature is useful during focused work sessions, where distractions need to be minimized.
For 30 minutes
For 30 minutes
For 1 hour
For 1 hour
For 3 hours
For 3 hours
Snooze
Snooze
# marketing
# marketing
Submit project report by 5:00 PM today.
Submit project report by 5:00 PM today.
1m ago
1m ago
Cancel
Cancel
9:55
9:55
4
Retake
The Retake button allows users to re-record their voice message or revise their dictated text before sending. This feature ensures that users can correct any misinterpretations by the speech-to-text system or modify their response if needed.
The Retake button allows users to re-record their voice message or revise their dictated text before sending. This feature ensures that users can correct any misinterpretations by the speech-to-text system or modify their response if needed.
Let me know if there’s anything specific you want to double-check before we proceed.
Let me know if there’s anything specific you want to double-check before we proceed.
Michael C...
Michael C...
9:55
9:55
Infotainment System
1
Skip
This feature allows users to skip less important messages with a voice command or tap, helping them focus only on critical notifications while driving.
This feature allows users to skip less important messages with a voice command or tap, helping them focus only on critical notifications while driving.
2
Review and Change
The Review feature in car infotainment allows users to listen to their drafted messages before sending, ensuring the response is accurate. If the message needs to be edited, the Change feature allows users to re-record their response using Siri before sending it.
The Review feature in car infotainment allows users to listen to their drafted messages before sending, ensuring the response is accurate. If the message needs to be edited, the Change feature allows users to re-record their response using Siri before sending it.
3
Join Huddle and Be there Soon
Join Huddle feature allows users to join voice-only huddle to collaborate with teammates in real-time discussions while keeping their hands on the steering wheel. This feature is useful for urgent discussions and staying updated on important conversations while commuting.
The Be there Soon feature allows users to notify teammates in Huddle that they will be joining soon, without needing to manually join the Huddle to inform or send a separate message. This feature ensures that user stay focused on driving while keeping their teammates informed.
Join Huddle feature allows users to join voice-only huddle to collaborate with teammates in real-time discussions while keeping their hands on the steering wheel. This feature is useful for urgent discussions and staying updated on important conversations while commuting.
The Be there Soon feature allows users to notify teammates in Huddle that they will be joining soon, without needing to manually join the Huddle to inform or send a separate message. This feature ensures that user stay focused on driving while keeping their teammates informed.
Platform-Specific Features
Platform-Specific Features
Smartwatch
Speech-to-Text
It enables users to convert voice into text messages, which helps users draft longer responses that can be sent quickly without needing to type on a small screen. Slack’s mobile and desktop version lacks this feature, allowing users to send audio messages rather than converting voice input into text.
It enables users to convert voice into text messages, which helps users draft longer responses that can be sent quickly without needing to type on a small screen. Slack’s mobile and desktop version lacks this feature, allowing users to send audio messages rather than converting voice input into text.
Michael C...
Michael C...
9:55
9:55
Tap on the mic icon to activate voice input.
0:00
0:00
Michael C...
Michael C...
9:55
9:55
After drafting the message, tap green button to confirm.
Let me know if there’s anything specific you want to double-check before we proceed.
Let me know if there’s anything specific you want to double-check before we proceed.
Michael C...
Michael C...
9:55
9:55
Review the message carefully and send it.
Infotainment System
1
Read Messages
Messages are read aloud by Siri instead of being displayed on the screen to minimize distractions while driving. Users can also replay messages as many times if needed, ensuring they don’t miss any important details.
Messages are read aloud by Siri instead of being displayed on the screen to minimize distractions while driving. Users can also replay messages as many times if needed, ensuring they don’t miss any important details.
2
Auto-update Slack Status
Once the phone connects to CarPlay via USB or wirelessly via Bluetooth, Slack automatically updates the user’s status to "Driving" for teammates to know that responses may be delayed.
Once the phone connects to CarPlay via USB or wirelessly via Bluetooth, Slack automatically updates the user’s status to "Driving" for teammates to know that responses may be delayed.
Note: This is how the user's status will appear to teammates when Slack automatically updates their status on connecting to CarPlay.
Note: This is how the user's status will appear to teammates when Slack automatically updates their status on connecting to CarPlay.
Leveraging Platform’s Hardware
Leveraging Platform’s Hardware
Smartwatch
Taptic Engine
Slack on smartwatch uses Apple's Taptic Engine to provide haptic alerts, ensuring users are informed of important messages. This feature is critical in quiet environments where checking phone may not be ideal.
Haptic feedback is also implemented when activating the microphone to inform users that the voice recording has started. If the microphone activates accidentally due to an unintended tap, the haptic notifies users, allowing them to cancel their response immediately.
Slack on smartwatch uses Apple's Taptic Engine to provide haptic alerts, ensuring users are informed of important messages. This feature is critical in quiet environments where checking phone may not be ideal.
Haptic feedback is also implemented when activating the microphone to inform users that the voice recording has started. If the microphone activates accidentally due to an unintended tap, the haptic notifies users, allowing them to cancel their response immediately.
Infotainment System
Voice Recognition Button
Slack on infotainment system uses of the Voice Recognition Button on the steering wheel to offer a hands-free interaction experience while driving. By pressing and holding this button, users can activate Siri to access Slack features using voice commands.
Slack on infotainment system uses of the Voice Recognition Button on the steering wheel to offer a hands-free interaction experience while driving. By pressing and holding this button, users can activate Siri to access Slack features using voice commands.
User Testing
User Testing
The goal of user testing was to evaluate the usability and intuitiveness of Slack’s adaptation for smartwatches and car infotainment systems. The focus was on identifying interaction challenges and feature effectiveness in hands-free and quick-response scenarios.
The goal of user testing was to evaluate the usability and intuitiveness of Slack’s adaptation for smartwatches and car infotainment systems. The focus was on identifying interaction challenges and feature effectiveness in hands-free and quick-response scenarios.
Key Questions Tested
Are users able to quickly check and respond to messages on a smartwatch without friction?
Do users understand and engage with key features like VIP DMs, mentions, and reminders?
Is the car infotainment interface intuitive for hands-free Slack interactions?
Are voice commands understood correctly, and do they provide a seamless hands-free experience?
Are users able to quickly check and respond to messages on a smartwatch without friction?
Do users understand and engage with key features like VIP DMs, mentions, and reminders?
Is the car infotainment interface intuitive for hands-free Slack interactions?
Are voice commands understood correctly, and do they provide a seamless hands-free experience?
Eligibility Criteria
Users who actively use Slack to stay connected with their teams.
Users who actively use Slack to stay connected with their teams.
Users who rely on smartwatches for quick interactions and managing notifications.
Users who rely on smartwatches for quick interactions and managing notifications.
Drivers using CarPlay who frequently communicate while commuting.
Drivers using CarPlay who frequently communicate while commuting.
Testing Tasks
Smartwatch
Reply to a high-priority message using quick responses or voice dictation to test ease of communication.
Find a message where you were directly mentioned and send a relevant response.
Temporarily dismiss a notification and select a time that works best for you to be reminded again.
Reply to a high-priority message using quick responses or voice dictation to test ease of communication.
Find a message where you were directly mentioned and send a relevant response.
Temporarily dismiss a notification and select a time that works best for you to be reminded again.
Infotainment System
Listen to an important message and respond hands-free using voice commands while driving.
Dismiss an unimportant message and move on to the next one without distraction.
Join a real-time conversation hands-free and later leave the discussion when needed.
Listen to an important message and respond hands-free using voice commands while driving.
Dismiss an unimportant message and move on to the next one without distraction.
Join a real-time conversation hands-free and later leave the discussion when needed.
Metrics Measured
Number of Tasks Completed – How many assigned tasks users successfully completed without errors.
Task Completion Time – The average time taken by participants to complete each task, such as reading a message, sending a reply, or joining a Huddle.
Number of Tasks Completed – How many assigned tasks users successfully completed without errors.
Task Completion Time – The average time taken by participants to complete each task, such as reading a message, sending a reply, or joining a Huddle.
Smartwatch
4
Total Participants
13 sec
Avg. Task Completion Time
3
Avg. Tasks Completed
Infotainment System
4
Total Participants
18 sec
Avg. Task Completion Time
3
Avg. Tasks Completed
What worked?
What worked?
Quick Reply Suggestions made responding effortless, reducing interaction time significantly.
Participants found the Voice Command feature efficient for hands-free messaging.
Participants valued messaging being divided into VIP DMs and Mentions, making it easier to prioritize conversations.
Participants appreciated how Auto-Update Status to "Driving" effortlessly informed of their availability.
Quick Reply Suggestions made responding effortless, reducing interaction time significantly.
Participants found the Voice Command feature efficient for hands-free messaging.
Participants valued messaging being divided into VIP DMs and Mentions, making it easier to prioritize conversations.
Participants appreciated how Auto-Update Status to "Driving" effortlessly informed of their availability.
What didn't?
What didn't?
Participants were unclear about VIP DMs until they were explained and expected a short prompt to explain how it works.
The Be There Soon feature was not immediately understood and expected a confirmation message after selecting it.
The options in the Snooze feature felt limited, as participants wanted more flexibility in selecting custom durations.
Participants were unclear about VIP DMs until they were explained and expected a short prompt to explain how it works.
The Be There Soon feature was not immediately understood and expected a confirmation message after selecting it.
The options in the Snooze feature felt limited, as participants wanted more flexibility in selecting custom durations.
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
This project was my first experience designing for a smartwatch and car infotainment system, helping me understand how design decisions vary across different contexts, even for the same app. It required careful consideration of user needs, device capabilities and limitations to create an intuitive experience.
A key takeaway was learning device-specific design practice. Smartwatch interactions needed to be brief, glanceable and clutter-free, with dark mode and limited colors to optimize battery life, while car infotainment prioritized safety-first messaging through hands-free interaction and voice-driven controls.
Integrating hardware played a key role in making the experience more intuitive. Using the smartwatch’s Taptic Engine for notifications and microphone activation and the infotainment system’s Voice Recognition Button for hands-free commands showed how small design choices can significantly improve usability.
This project was my first experience designing for a smartwatch and car infotainment system, helping me understand how design decisions vary across different contexts, even for the same app. It required careful consideration of user needs, device capabilities and limitations to create an intuitive experience.
A key takeaway was learning device-specific design practice. Smartwatch interactions needed to be brief, glanceable and clutter-free, with dark mode and limited colors to optimize battery life, while car infotainment prioritized safety-first messaging through hands-free interaction and voice-driven controls.
Integrating hardware played a key role in making the experience more intuitive. Using the smartwatch’s Taptic Engine for notifications and microphone activation and the infotainment system’s Voice Recognition Button for hands-free commands showed how small design choices can significantly improve usability.